Chapter V, Sec. 1–2: Comparison of Views of Heaven & Earth

Section 1. Comparison of Indigenous Modernity in the View of Heaven

1. Three Powers (三才) and Three Realms (三界)

In accordance with the principle of liminality — that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny — Daesoon Thought carries forward the features of Donghak Thought while adding new ones. Accordingly, a comparison of the two systems of thought can be carried out by examining these newly emerging features. The terms that appear distinctively in the View of Heaven (天觀) of Daesoon Thought are the Three Realms (三界) and the Later Heaven (後天), which correspond respectively to the Three Powers (三才) and the Former Heaven (先天) in Donghak Thought.

First, in Daesoon Thought, the Three Realms (三界) refers to the Realm of Heaven (天界), the Realm of Earth (地界), and the Realm of Humanity (人界). Although Daoist thought does mention the Heavenly Realm and the Underworld individually, it is rare to find cases where the term "Three Realms" is used to encompass all of them together. By contrast, Daesoon Thought presupposes the "Three Realms" from the very term "Daesoon" itself, and the Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth (天地公事) — which lies at the heart of Daesoon Thought — is likewise expressed as a series of Works of the Three Realms.

"Those Works of the Three Realms are the Gaebyeok of the Three Realms of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity. This Gaebyeok is not a matter of following what others have already made, but something newly created — it never existed before, it does not exist now, it was not inherited from others, it is not a matter of fortune, but something that must be made by the Sangje alone." Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 5.¹

[1. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 5.]

In the above passage, the Three Realms is defined as a term that encompasses the Realm of Heaven, the Realm of Earth, and the Realm of Humanity together. The Three Realms appears as a key doctrinal term that reveals the distinctive features of Daesoon Thought. Although the Three Realms (三界) is contrasted with the Three Powers (三才), it first appears in Daesoon Thought and is used repeatedly therein. For example, in Daesoon Thought, the Gucheon Daewon Johwa Jushin (九天大元造化主神)² is the Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms (三界至尊),³ overseeing (統察) the Three Realms and carrying out the Works in the Three Realms (三界役使);⁴ amid these Works, the plea of the divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas led to the Three Realms' Disorder (三界混亂)⁵ developing into the Three Realms' Chaos (三界錯亂);⁶ through the Great Tour of the Three Realms (三界大巡),⁷ the problem was diagnosed; by exercising the Great Authority of the Three Realms (三界大權),⁸ the Hidden Demons of the Three Realms (三界伏魔)⁹ were subjected to the Remaking of the Three Realms (三界改造),¹⁰ and through the Works of the Three Realms (三界公事),¹¹ the Exorcism of the Three Realms (三界解魔)¹² was accomplished, the Three Realms were made Transparent (透明),¹³ and the Three Realms underwent Gaebyeok (開闢).¹⁴

[2. The full title of the Supreme Deity in Daesoon Thought; lit. "The Great Primordial Creator-God of the Nine Heavens."] [3. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram (大巡眞理會要覽), p.7.] [4. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-17.] [5. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9.] [6. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 10.] [7. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9; "Gyoun" 2-6.] [8. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 17; "Gweonji" 1-21.] [9. Jeon'gyeong, "Haengrok" 5-38.] [10. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 7.] [11. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 3.] [12. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-30.] [13. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram, p.9.] [14. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 1-2.]

When compared with the Three Powers (三才), this concept of the Three Realms (三界) reveals three distinctive features. First, in expressions such as "Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms" and "Great Tour of the Three Realms," the characteristics of the View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity as seen from the perspective of the Nine Heavens are revealed. Second, since the character "Realm" (界) carries the meaning of "system," the Three Realms emphasizes the Divine Spirit Realm (神明界) in comparison with the Three Powers. Third, as indicated by the character "Realm" (界), the Three Realms simultaneously emphasizes the Western concept of substantiality, in contrast to the Eastern Three Powers, which emphasizes attributes. Each of these features can be examined in light of the contexts in which the Three Realms appears, as follows.

First, in the Three Realms, expressions such as "Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms" and "Great Tour of the Three Realms" reveal the characteristics of the View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity as seen from the perspective of the Nine Heavens. The Heavenly Sovereign (天主) — that is, the Gucheon Daewon Johwa Jushin — as the Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms (三界至尊), oversees (統察) the Three Realms and works within them.

"The term Heavenly Sovereign (天尊) means the Supreme Sovereign (至尊) of the Three Realms (三界), who is supremely great and supremely holy (至大至聖), universally transforming all living beings and the myriad things throughout the land with the sound of thunder."¹⁵

[15. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram, "Object of Faith" (신앙의 대상).]

Regarding the term "Nine Heavens" (九天):

"As seen in the Jeon'gyeong passage: '...All the divine sages (神聖), buddhas (佛), and bodhisattvas (菩薩) assembled and made their plea to the Nine Heavens (九天)... (Gyoun, Chapter 1, Verse 9),' this indicates that they made their plea to the Heavenly Sovereign who occupies the highest position overseeing this entire universe. That Nine Heavens is precisely the highest position from which the Sangje oversees (統察) the Three Realms, regulates (調理) the universe, and refines (調鍊) the transformations."¹⁶

[16. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram, "Object of Faith."]

The word "overseeing" (統察) is, like "Three Realms," a term unique to Daesoon Thought that does not appear in standard Korean dictionaries. Korean dictionaries only contain 통찰 (洞察, insight) and 통찰 (通察, comprehensive observation); the character 統 in 통찰 (統察) means "to govern" or "to lead." Furthermore, 통찰 (統察) is distinguished from 통제 (統制, control): 통제 means to govern while restraining, whereas 통찰 means to govern the great cosmos while observing it. Overseeing the Three Realms means existing as the Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms and exercising the Great Authority of the Three Realms. The Nine Heavens exists as the Supreme Sovereign of the Three Realms and hears the pleas of the divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas from there.

"Broadly establishing schools throughout this world to educate people is aimed at greatly civilizing the world for the future and attaching it to the Works of the Three Realms in order to resolve the grievances (解願) of spirits and humans (神人). However, the current school education causes students to fall into base self-interest such as official posts and stipends. Therefore, I have made it so that people may attain the Way outside the established framework." With these words, he concluded his speech.¹⁷

[17. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-17.]

In the Former Heaven, the only way for Divine Spirits to release their grievances was to act upon humans or to be reborn as humans to achieve accomplishments at a higher level, and this was possible only through schools. The Works in the Three Realms is mentioned only once in the entire Jeon'gyeong. We can see that in the Works of the Three Realms, the problem of the Three Realms presents the human being as the answer to the problem.

Second, since the character "Realm" (界) in the Three Realms (三界) carries the meaning of "system," the Divine Spirit Realm (神明界) is emphasized in comparison with the Three Powers (三才). The indigenous modernity of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought has as its background the collision between the modernity of the Western View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity — which emphasizes substance — and the traditional Eastern Three Powers thought — which emphasizes attributes. The Western substantive view of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity prioritized growth and thus had power but lacked stability, while the Eastern Three Powers view prioritized stability and offered integrated stability but lacked the power to respond to contemporary realities. Donghak Thought attempted to supplement the lack of power in the Eastern Three Powers view by revealing the Heaven-beyond-Heaven (天外天) that had been concealed within Eastern thought, but this could not constitute a sufficient method. In response to this, Daesoon Thought — by introducing the concept of Divine Spirits (神明) through the concept of the Three Realms — presented a way to integrate the Eastern and Western views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.

In Daesoon Thought, from the Nine Heavens, the development of Three Realms Disorder (三界混亂)¹⁸ into Three Realms Chaos (三界錯亂)¹⁹ — caused by the pleas of the divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas of Heaven, Earth, and the Spirit World — is diagnosed through the Great Tour of the Three Realms (三界大巡).²⁰

[18. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9.] [19. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 10.] [20. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9; "Gyoun" 2-6.]

"Daesoon Jinrihoe: In response to the appeals of the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth calling for the rectification of the Three Realms (三界) that had lost the constant Way (常道), the Gucheon Sangje descended to the human world, set in order the degrees of Heaven and Earth that had lost the constant Way, proclaimed the principles of Haewon Sangsaeng (解冤相生) in the Realm of Humanity (人界) for the purpose of saving and remedying all under Heaven (匡救天下), completed over forty years the great works that attended this proclamation, and then ascended to Heaven."²¹

[21. Podeokhwha Gibonwonri (布德敎化基本原理), "Outline of History" (연혁개요).]

"The appeals of the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth" refers to "the plea made to the Nine Heavens (九天) by all the assembled divine sages (神聖), buddhas (佛), and bodhisattvas (菩薩)." Here, all the divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas are expressed as the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth. Divine Spirits (神明) connect attributes with substance, causing substance to move in accordance with attributes and causing attributes to be manifested in substance. Depending on the role of the Divine Spirits, the Three Realms may fall into disorder or may emerge from it.

"...(preceding portion omitted) That civilization, being biased toward materialism, instead fostered human arrogance and ultimately led to the endless committing of all manner of sins in its attempt to shake the Heavenly principles and conquer nature, thereby diminishing the authority of the Way of the divine. Consequently, the constant Way of the Heavenly Way (天道) and human affairs (人事) was violated, the Three Realms fell into disorder, and the source of the Way was about to be severed. Thereupon, all the primordial divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas assembled and made their plea to the Nine Heavens regarding this calamity facing humanity and the Divine Spirit Realm...(remainder omitted)..."²²

[22. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9.]

The disorder manifests as a breakdown in the functioning of the Divine Spirit Realm. The disorder of the Divine Spirit Realm develops into the chaos of the Divine Spirit Realm. The disorder of the Realm of Heaven is said to begin from the chaos of the Underworld (冥府). In the passage: "The Sangje said: 'The chaos of the Underworld has brought chaos to the entire world; once the works of the Underworld are concluded, the affairs of the entire world will be resolved.' After these words, the Sangje every day wrote on paper and then burned what he had written,"²³ we can see that the Divine Spirits are both the cause of the disorder and the means of resolving the problem. The Nine Heavens diagnoses the disorder of the Divine Spirit Realm through the Great Tour of the Three Realms and rectifies the disorder of the Divine Spirit Realm through the Works of the Three Realms. The term "Daesoon Jinri" (大巡眞理, "Great Truth of the Grand Tour") is an abbreviation of "Samgye Gaebyeok Daesoon Jinri" (三界開闢大巡眞理, "Great Truth of the Grand Tour of Gaebyeok of the Three Realms").

[23. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 1-5.]

The name of this Order (宗團), Daesoon Jinrihoe (大巡眞理會), takes its term "Daesoon" (大巡) from the following passages in the Jeon'gyeong, in which the Sangje said:

"...(preceding portion omitted) All the primordial divine sages (神聖), buddhas (佛), and bodhisattvas (菩薩) assembled and made their plea to the Nine Heavens (九天) regarding the calamity facing humanity and the Divine Spirit Realm (神明界), whereupon I descended to the Heavenly Revelation Tower (天啓塔) of Daebeopguk (大法國) in the West and made a Grand Tour (大巡) of the world, and arriving at this Eastern land...(remainder omitted)..."²⁴

[24. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9.]

"...(preceding portion omitted) I descended to the Heavenly Revelation Tower of Daebeopguk in the West and made a Grand Tour of the world, and bearing the Great Authority of the Three Realms (三界大權), I intend to perform Gaebyeok of the Three Realms (三界) and open the realm of the immortals (仙境), and rescue the living beings of the world who have fallen into death and annihilation...(remainder omitted)..."²⁵

[25. Jeon'gyeong, "Gweonji" 1-11.]

"Gongu, having served the Sangje for three years and attended upon the Works of Heaven and Earth on many occasions, at the conclusion of each work received the instruction to 'go on a circuit to and spread the word among the followers at each location,' and heard the words 'this work is the Great Tour (大巡) of Heaven and Earth.'"²⁶

[26. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-64.]

These passages show that the name is derived from that "Daesoon" which carries the meaning of "the Works of Gaebyeok of the Great Tour of the Three Realms (三界大巡 開闢公事)."²⁷

[27. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram, "Daesoon Jinrihoe."]

In the above passages, the expression "that Daesoon which carries the meaning of the Works of Gaebyeok of the Great Tour of the Three Realms" demonstrates that "Daesoon Jinri" is an abbreviation of "Samgye Gaebyeok Daesoon Jinri."

Third, as indicated by the character "Realm" (界) in the Three Realms (三界), the Western concept of substantiality is emphasized in comparison with the Eastern Three Powers (三才), which emphasizes attributes. In Daesoon Thought, the Nine Heavens, by exercising the Great Authority of the Three Realms (三界大權),²⁸ performs the Works of the Three Realms (三界公事)²⁹ of remaking the Three Realms (三界改造)³⁰ by subduing the Hidden Demons of the Three Realms (三界伏魔),³¹ thereby accomplishing the Exorcism of the Three Realms (三界解魔),³² making the Three Realms Transparent (透明),³³ and performing the Gaebyeok of the Three Realms.³⁴ First, the Three Realms, compared with the Three Powers that is biased toward the meaning of attributes, comes to possess substance — as in the Great Authority of the Three Realms — and thus brings about actual change.

[28. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 17; "Gweonji" 1-21.] [29. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 1-3.] [30. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 7.] [31. Jeon'gyeong, "Haengrok" 5-38.] [32. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-30.] [33. Daesoon Jinrihoe Yoram, p.9.] [34. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 1-2.]

"One day the Sangje said to Kim Hyeong-ryeol: 'I intend to preside over the Great Authority of the Three Realms, to perform Gaebyeok of Heaven and Earth through marvelous transformations, to open the Later Heaven realm of the immortals (後天仙境), and to broadly rescue all living beings who have fallen into a sea of suffering.' He then said:

'Now, at this time of the end of an age, the Great Destiny of the Infinite Ultimate (無極大運) is about to open. Be cautious in all things, do not form grudges against others, stay far from sin, and with a pure heart participate in the great tribunal of Heaven and Earth (天地公庭).'

Having said this, he opened the spiritual sight of Hyeong-ryeol and allowed him to witness the gathering and the receiving of commands of the Divine Spirits."³⁵

[35. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 17.]

In the above passage, the Nine Heavens references the Great Authority of the Three Realms as the means to perform Gaebyeok of Heaven and Earth through marvelous transformations and to open the Later Heaven realm of the immortals. Through the Divine Spirits, the Nine Heavens is also able to exorcise the hidden demons (伏魔) of the Three Realms and perform Gaebyeok.

The introduction of the Divine Spirit Realm through the concept of the Three Realms, and the harmony of substance and attributes, can be explained more concretely through the descent of Deity in human form (人身降世) in Daesoon Thought and the consequent harmony of the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity — compared with Donghak Thought, in which only the appearance of the Heaven-beyond-Heaven (天外天) is emphasized. With the concept of the Three Realms as background, as examined above, we can compare the indigenous modernity found in Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought.

First, to summarize the features of the View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity in Donghak Thought: First, in Donghak Thought, the concept of Heavenly Lord (天主) as a being existing beyond the Heavenly Realm was activated. The Donghak View of Heaven differs from the pre-Donghak View of Heaven, which remained only in separation. Second, the View of Heaven in Donghak Thought formally possesses both the transcendence of Western Learning (西學) and the immanence of Daoist thought, and in terms of content possesses the immanence of Western Learning and the transcendence of Daoist thought. Regarding the View of Earth in Donghak Thought, Donghak also aspires toward a heaven on earth. The View of Humanity in Donghak Thought advocates for protecting the nation and securing the people's welfare (輔國安民). This is grounded in the harmony between earth and humanity, and the harmony among human beings.

Throughout both East and West, claims and systems of thought regarding the View of Humanity and the View of the Divine have continued to emerge. However, Daesoon Thought is nearly the only system that has re-established the Three Realms perspective and, through this worldview of the Three Realms, re-established the View of the Divine and the View of Humanity. Because Daesoon Thought represented such a unique re-establishment of the Three Realms perspective distinct from existing religions, research on the Three Realms perspective has been exceedingly rare.

The Eastern worldview of the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity is no longer a worldview that Easterners themselves believe in and rely upon — not since the Western invasions that began approximately one hundred years ago. The negation of the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity is the negation of Eastern civilization itself, and a negation of the five thousand years of history that the East has built. Therefore, the re-establishment of the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity is nothing less than the re-establishment of Eastern civilization and the revival of Eastern history.

In response to the changed Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity in Donghak Thought, Daesoon Thought presents the concept of the Three Realms. The Three Realms not only has ancient origins but also provided a microscopic framework for the entirety of East Asian culture beyond a merely macroscopic worldview. The Three Realms went beyond the spatial worldview of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity to become the foundation of the methodology of yin-yang and the Five Agents (陰陽五行) — which in turn served as the basis for East Asian philosophy, religion, science, art, and technology. The Three Powers served as the common foundation of yin-yang theory and Five Agents theory, providing a unified framework extending from elite culture to folk culture.

The worldview of Daesoon Thought is characterized by the Three Realms perspective (三界觀). Daesoon Thought is nearly the only religion that clearly presents the Three Realms perspective as a worldview. In Daesoon Thought, the Three Realms refers to the Realm of Heaven (天界), the Realm of Earth (地界), and the Realm of Humanity (人界). Although Daoist thought mentions the Heavenly Realm and the Underworld individually, the use of the expression "Three Realms" to encompass all of them together is rare in Daoism. By contrast, Daesoon Thought presupposes the "Three Realms" from the very term "Daesoon" itself, and the Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth — which is central to Daesoon Thought — is likewise expressed as a series of Works of the Three Realms.

The religious order that advocates correlative thinking (相關的 思惟) is the order that venerates Jeungsan as the object of faith, and among these, Daesoon Thought is the most representative. The Daesoon order goes further to explicitly state and emphasize the Three Realms. Daesoon Thought has also assigned the highest priority to establishing the Three Realms perspective in the Works of Heaven and Earth as well as in its theoretical framework. The establishment of the Three Realms perspective in Daesoon Thought is a liminality and revitalization (再活性化) based on correlative thinking, and can be described as the Union of Virtue of Yin and Yang (陰陽合德), the Establishment of the Three Powers (三才確立), and the Complete Endowment of the Five Agents (五行具備). This is actually realized in Heaven, Earth, and Humanity through the Works of Heaven and Earth.

The most concrete expression of Gaebyeok is the Daesoon Three Realms Gaebyeok. Before Jeungsan spoke of the Three Realms Gaebyeok, there was a "renewed Gaebyeok," but the Three Realms Gaebyeok is clear and concrete in its substance. While there has been much research on Donghak, comparative research with Daesoon Thought on the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity has been rare. The comparison of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought is most clearly revealed in the changes in the Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.

Despite the widespread examples of the Three Realms in East Asian culture, understanding of the Three Realms remains insufficient not only in Daesoon Thought itself but in the field of East Asian thought research as a whole. The reason for the insufficiency of research on the Three Realms is that the concept of the Three Realms requires empirical and logical explanation — a field of interdisciplinary research that goes beyond the domain of the humanities. In other words, the very breadth of the Three Realms has operated as an obstacle. Because the Three Realms is not merely a symbolic framework but is applied to concrete culture, the unlimited scope of the Three Realms has in many cases not aligned with existing Western science. Consequently, in research on East Asian thought, the Three Realms as a worldview has been regarded as a pre-modern worldview, and only its philosophical aspects have been studied separately.

The View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity in Daesoon Thought — which interprets the Heaven-Earth-Humanity as the Three Realms — superficially corresponds to the View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity in Daoism. The Three Realms (三界) in Daoism is a concept that arose when the concept of "Powers" (才, as in the Three Powers of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity) was expanded into the concept of "Realm" (界, world/realm). The Eastern Three Realms is broadly divided between the Buddhist Three Realms — consisting of the Realm of Desire (欲界), the Realm of Form (色界), and the Formless Realm (無色界) — and the Daoist Three Realms of the Heavenly Realm (天界), the Earthly Realm (地界), and the Human Realm (人界). The Daoist View of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, which clearly explains the material world, and the Buddhist Three Realms perspective, understood also as spiritual states, appear to have clearly different domains of explanation, but commonalities also emerge. Among these commonalities, examining first the name "Three Realms," one notes that after the Buddhist concept of the Three Realms, the concept of "Realm" (界) — in expressions like Heavenly Realm, Earthly Realm, and Human Realm — appears in Daoism as well, replacing the Three Powers (三才). Moreover, concerning the division of Heaven, the sum of the Heavens that appear in the Buddhist Three Realms comes to twenty-eight, and Daoism likewise arrives at twenty-eight when the highest heavens are excluded. The correspondence in the number twenty-eight suggests that when Daoism expressed the Three Powers as "Realms" alongside Buddhist Three Realms, the Daoist Heavenly, Earthly, and Human Realms shared common ground with the Buddhist Three Realms. Another commonality between the Buddhist and Daoist concepts of "Realm" is the application of trinary differentiated thinking (三數分化的 思考) to the perception of the world.³⁶

[36. Park Tae-bong, "A Study on the Trinary Principle in Korean Thought and Culture," Ph.D. dissertation, Kongju National University, 2020.]

In both Buddhism and Daoism, trinary differentiation appears to be an emphasis on the dynamic symmetry common to both traditions. Symmetry itself is a binary differentiation of yin and yang, but sustaining symmetry requires a new central axis at the center of the two poles. As in the natural phenomena of the macroscopic solar system or the microscopic subatomic particle system, even in metaphysical thought, three axes are necessary for continuously maintained symmetry. Just as the concept of the Trinity is universally prevalent worldwide, the reason why the trinary differentiated worldview is universal not only in the East but across all of history globally is clearly the maintenance of symmetry. This is also a feature of the Daesoon Thought Three Realms perspective, which takes the Union of Virtue of Yin and Yang as its founding principle. Another reason why the Daoist View of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity — which aligns with Daesoon Thought's Three Realms perspective — attracts attention is its scientific character. In particular, the fractal worldview of quantum mechanics, which regards the universe as a repetition of a single principle, has been highlighted since the 1960s by new-science scholars such as Capra.³⁷

[37. Fritjof Capra, The Web of Life: A New Scientific Understanding of Living Systems, trans. Kim Yong-jeong and Kim Dong-gwang (Seoul: Goyang, 1998); Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics, trans. Lee Seong-beom and Kim Yong-jeong (Goyang: Beomyangsa, 2015).]

2. Former Heaven (先天) and Later Heaven (後天)

The most striking difference appearing in the View of Heaven of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought can be expressed concisely as the distinction between the Former Heaven and the Later Heaven. Just as the difference between the Three Realms and the Three Powers is not merely a difference in terminology, the Former Heaven and the Later Heaven are not merely a difference in era — they are core concepts relating to whether the role of the Divine Spirits is involved in modernity. The concept of the Later Heaven (後天) is demarcated between Former Heaven and Later Heaven according to the descent of Deity in human form (人身降世) by the Sangje. Since the appearance of the Heaven-beyond-Heaven (天外天) in Donghak Thought and the descent of the Nine Heavens in human form in Daesoon Thought represent an incomparably vast difference from the perspective of the Divine Spirit Realm that constitutes the world, the boundary of the Later Heaven begins with the descent of the Nine Heavens of Daesoon Thought in human form, which brings about a comprehensive change in the status of both the Divine Spirit Realm and the Human Realm. Therefore, in Daesoon Thought, the concept of the Later Heaven becomes an expression unique to Daesoon Thought — entirely different from the Jeongyeok (正易) thought.

In Donghak Thought, Gaebyeok carries the meaning of "return to the Former Heaven" (道路先天), becoming a "renewed Gaebyeok" (다시 개벽). Donghak Thought's "renewed Gaebyeok" has commonly been interpreted as "Later Heaven Gaebyeok" (後天開闢). However, looking at records from Donghak-related orders that continued Donghak Thought, "renewed Gaebyeok" appears to represent not the meaning of "Later Heaven Gaebyeok" but rather a return to the origin of the Former Heaven (先天), i.e., "return to the Former Heaven" (道路先天). "Return to the Former Heaven" appears to be a term formally similar to "renewed Gaebyeok." The "Sangju Donghak" (尙州東學) order, which used the term "return to the Former Heaven," is known as an order that newly distributed many Donghak-related scriptures and songs. The fact that an order focused on publication and documents interpreted "renewed Gaebyeok" as "return to the Former Heaven" suggests that, in the textual context of Donghak scriptures, interpreting "renewed Gaebyeok" as "return to the Former Heaven" is considered reasonable.³⁸ In fact, if one views the problems of that era only from a Confucian perspective, the best solution to those problems could have been a "renewed Gaebyeok" — a return to the age of the sage-kings Yao and Shun.

[38. Kim Tak, "The Content and Significance of the Sangju Donghak 'Return to the Former Heaven' (道路先天) Thought," Daesoon Sasang Nonchong 48 (2024), pp.199–237.]

By contrast, Daesoon Thought asserts Later Heaven Gaebyeok in response to this. In accordance with the principle of liminality — that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny — the concept of Former Heaven and Later Heaven in Daesoon Thought can be compared with the Former Heaven of Donghak Thought by examining the distinctive features of the Later Heaven. The Later Heaven is a View of Heaven in which the Eastern attributive View of Heaven and the Western substantive View of Heaven have achieved Union of Virtue (合德). From the perspective of Daesoon Thought, which integrates Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, the notion of "return to the Former Heaven" — meaning the restart of the age of Yao and Shun — represents a reduction of Daesoon Thought to the Confucian canon alone.

"In the twelfth month, after completing several works, the Sangje began the work of adjusting the degrees of inversion (逆度). Gyeong-seok, Gwang-chan, and Nae-seong went to Daeheung-ri; Won-il went to the house of Sin Gyeong-won; Hyeong-ryeol and Ja-hyeon departed for Donggok. The Sangje said to the remaining followers, Mun Gong-sin, Hwang Eung-jong, and Sin Gyeong-su: 'Gyeong-seok has been devoted in Sincerity (誠), Reverence (敬), and Faith (信), and I had thought of using him for a different purpose; but since he has volunteered himself, nothing can be done.' He further said: 'Originally, Donghak's advocacy of protecting the nation and securing the people's welfare (輔國安民) amounted to nothing more than a clamor for the Later Heaven work. But in their hearts, each desired to become a king, lord, general, or minister (王侯將相), and since their wishes could not be fulfilled, they were swept away and died by the tens of thousands. Their grievances have mounted to the heavens; if these Divine Spirits are left as they are, in the Later Heaven they will be entangled in the degrees of inversion and governance will fall into disorder. I have been seeking to appoint a leader for the resolution of grievances (解冤) of those Divine Spirits, and since Gyeong-seok spoke of twelve nations, this is his own volunteering. His father, a senior figure in Donghak, was arrested and killed, and he himself served as Donghak general commander; so from now on, all the Donghak Divine Spirits have been sent and attached to Gyeong-seok. From this place, the resolution of grievances of kings, lords, generals, and ministers shall begin.' He then wrote on paper and forbade outsiders from entering, saying: 'Watch in the future. A great deal of money will be spent, and more people will gather than in the year Gabo (1894). They must be released so that there will be no obstacles in the Later Heaven.'"³⁹

[39. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 2-19.]

The original intention of Donghak was the Later Heaven, but Donghak Thought — which understood Daesoon Thought through the Confucian canon — misread the Later Heaven as "return to the Former Heaven" and understood Donghak Thought as a vision of "the entire nation becoming aristocrats" (양반). Furthermore, the dream of being "aristocrats" was connected to the aspiration of becoming kings, lords, generals, and ministers, showing that the interpretation of "return to the Former Heaven" was an incomplete interpretation.

Just as phylogeny repeats in ontogeny, in Daesoon Thought, a new era must be realized in a new world with a new thought that integrates Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism; it had to be not "return to the Former Heaven" but the Later Heaven — a new Heaven and a new Earth.

In Daesoon Thought, the Former Heaven is not a world to be sublated (止揚) in contrast to the Later Heaven; rather, following the principle of growth, culmination, harvest, and storage (生長斂藏), it was a process that had to be passed through in order to arrive at the Later Heaven. The countless grievances of the Former Heaven were the driving force that could be resolved through the release of grievances (解冤) in the Later Heaven. However, the Gaebyeok — that is, the meaning of the indigenous modernity of Daesoon Thought — was not a reset back to the beginning, like "return to the Former Heaven." The Gaebyeok and the Later Heaven that the indigenous modernity of Daesoon Thought sought to achieve was a new world made by gathering only the best among the principles of all times and all places — East and West, past and present — just as ontogeny repeats phylogeny.⁴⁰

[40. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 30.]

Originally, the term "Former Heaven" (先天) was first used in the history of the science of changes (易學史) by Shao Kangjie (邵康節), and the academic system of Former Heaven studies (先天易學) was completed by Zhu Xi (朱熹) and Cai Yuanding (蔡元定) — the father of Cai Chen (蔡沈), who wrote the "Preface to the Documents Classic" (書傳序文).⁴¹ Former Heaven studies refers to the study of the principles of cosmic change as revealed in Fu Xi's Eight Trigram Diagram and the Hetu-Luoshu (河圖洛書), distinct from the divination studies that followed King Wen's sixty-four hexagrams. The familiar Fu Xi Eight Trigram Diagram in use today did not exist before Shao Kangjie made it public. In Former Heaven studies, the Former Heaven refers to the time before things operate in mutually opposing ways, or before matter comes into being — used in the Changes with the meaning of "preceding Heaven." Shao Kangjie distinguishes Former Heaven from Later Heaven at the boundary of when Emperor Yao discovered the concept of Earth (土). Since Former Heaven studies is related to the arrangement of the eight trigrams, the Jeongyeok (正易) can also be said to be Former Heaven studies in a broad sense. For modern interpretations of Former Heaven studies, the works of Han Kyu-seong,⁴² Han Tae-dong,⁴³ Han Jang-gyeong,⁴⁴ Han Dong-seok,⁴⁵ Lee Seung-su,⁴⁶ Kim Seung-ho,⁴⁷ Yun Jong-bin,⁴⁸ Lee Hyeon-jung,⁴⁹ Im Byeong-hak,⁵⁰ Yun Jong-bin,⁵¹ and Kim Sang-il⁵² are widely known.

[41. Jo Hui-yeong, "Seo Myeong-eung's Establishment of Former Heaven Studies and Its Historical Significance: Focusing on Seoncheon Saryeon," Cheolhak Yeongu 98 (2012), p.1.] [42. Han Kyu-seong (original), Han Pil-hun (ed.), 46 Questions and Answers on the Book of Changes (Seoul: Dongnyeok, 1996); Han Kyu-seong, Lectures on the Principles of the Science of Changes (Seoul: Yemunjisa, 1997).] [43. Han Tae-dong, The Flow of Thought (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 2003).] [44. Han Jang-gyeong, The Book of Changes and the Jeongyeok (Seoul: Samgwa Kkum, 2001).] [45. Han Dong-seok, The Principles of Cosmic Change: The Principles of Yin-Yang and the Five Agents (Seoul: Daewon Publishing, 2003).] [46. Lee Seung-su, The Principle of the Center (Seoul: Jijidotcom, 2008).] [47. Kim Seung-ho, Original Treatise on the Book of Changes, vols. 1–6 (Seoul: Seonyeongsa, 2009).] [48. Yun Jong-bin and Yun Jong-bin, Jeongyeok and the Book of Changes (Sangsaeng Publishing, 2009).] [49. Lee Hyeon-jung, The Book of Changes and the Four Books (Seoul: Yeongnak, 2004).] [50. Im Byeong-hak, The Science of Changes and the Hetu-Luoshu (Seoul: Hanguk Haksul Jeongbo, 2008).] [51. Yun Jong-bin, Foundations of Korean Studies in the Science of Changes (Seoul: Mungyeong Publishing, 2012).] [52. Kim Sang-il, The Book of Changes and the Logic of Post-Modernity (Seoul: Jisiksaneobsa, 2006).]

The concept of "Later Heaven" begins with the use of the concept of "Heavenly Lord" (天主) in Donghak Thought. This is because the boundary between Former Heaven and Later Heaven is marked by the descent of the Sangje in human form. The "Heavenly Lord" (天主) is the name of a monotheistic deity that Matteo Ricci heard from a young Chinese man.⁵³ Catholic priests and Protestant ministers who studied Confucian scriptures, including Matteo Ricci, hold that the Sangje (上帝) of original Confucianism appears in a purely monotheistic form.⁵⁴ Matteo Ricci, the Catholic priest who first transmitted Western teaching to China, and James Legge (1815–1897), the Protestant minister who translated the Four Books and Five Classics including the Book of Changes and the Analects into Western languages, both argued — as if nearly of one mind — that the Chinese were descendants of Noah's descendants who had migrated, and therefore possessed a primitive monotheism, which subsequently fell into corruption.⁵⁵ Terrien de Lacouperie (1844–1894), the foremost European sinologist until the early twentieth century, also argued that the Yellow Emperor (黃帝) came from Babylonia.⁵⁶

[53. Ahn Seong-ho, "Theological Continuity Between the Term 'Shangdi' (上帝) Used in Matteo Ricci's True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (天主實義) in the Early Seventeenth Century and in James Legge's English Translations of the Chinese Confucian Classics in the Nineteenth Century," Han'guk Kidokkyo wa Yeoksa 32 (Institute for Korean Church History, 2010), pp.302–304; Chen Kaitong, God in Ancient China (Seoul: Sun Publishing, 2009).] [54. Ahn Seong-ho, "John Ross's Theological Position on the Primitive Monotheism of Chinese Confucianism and the Terminology Controversy in the Chinese Bible Translation," Han'guk Kidokkyo wa Yeoksa 40 (Institute for Korean Church History, 2014), p.228.] [55. Legge, The Notions of the Chinese concerning God and Spirits, p.33; cited in Ahn Seong-ho, "Theological Continuity," pp.315–316.] [56. Sun Jiang, "The Yellow Emperor Came from Babylon: Lacouperie's 'Western Origins of Chinese Civilization' Theory and Its Transmission to East Asia," Gaenyeom gwa Sotong 5 (2010), pp.79–126.]

The reason the term "Heavenly Lord" (天主) in the Sijeongju (侍天主) incantation is important is that the charge of Catholicism against Donghak — the cause of Donghak's suppression — was based on the "Heavenly Lord" (天主) in the Sijeongju incantation. That Choe Su-un knew there was a danger of Donghak being conflated with Catholicism on account of the "Heavenly Lord" (天主) in the Sijeongju incantation and yet insisted on "Heavenly Lord" anyway remains an unresolved question in academia. Since Choe Su-un received a revelation of the Sangje's teachings and the Sijeongju was likewise a revelation from the Sangje, despite the concern of being conflated with Catholicism, it could not be changed. The "Heavenly Lord" (天主) in "Sijeongju" also referred to the Heavenly Lord Maitreya (天主 彌勒, Tushita Heaven Lord Maitreya) mentioned in the Sutra of Maitreya Bodhisattva's Ascent and Rebirth in Tushita Heaven (彌勒上生經).⁵⁷ The Gucheon Daewon Johwa Jushin can also be called "Heavenly Lord" (天主) by combining the "Heaven" (天) of "Nine Heavens" (九天) and the "Lord" (主) of "Johwaju" (造化主). The reason Matteo Ricci translated Deus as "Heavenly Lord" (天主) was not because it was a term he invented but because it was the term in use in China at the time to mean God. The Later Heaven was a concept contrasted with the Yonghwa World (龍華世界) — the world after the descent of Maitreya.⁵⁸

[57. The sutra passage: "A hundred thousand heavenly kings, while providing heavenly music, scatter heavenly Mandara flowers and Maha-Mandara flowers over him, praising him: 'Excellent, excellent, good man! Because you cultivated abundant meritorious karma in Jambudvipa, you were born here. This place is Tushita Heaven, and the name of the Heavenly Lord here is Maitreya. You should take refuge in him.'" (Sutra on Contemplating Maitreya Bodhisattva's Ascent to be Reborn in Tushita Heaven, 佛說觀彌勒菩薩上生兜率天經; Dongguk University Buddhist Records Cultural Heritage Archive). The Gucheon Daewon Johwa Jushin can also be called "Heavenly Lord" by combining the "Heaven" of "Nine Heavens" and the "Lord" of "Johwaju."] [58. Choe Jong-seok, "Buddhist Elements in Jeungsan Religion (甑山敎): Focusing on the Acceptance of the Maitreya Faith," Seon Munhwa Yeongu 23 (2017), pp.254–255.]

In Daesoon Thought, the Later Heaven is the Three Realms perspective in which the Three Powers have been established. The Daesoon Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm of established Three Powers refashions even the astronomical arrangements of the heavens. Daesoon Thought substantializes the Infinite Ultimate (無極) through the concept of the Mugeuk Deity (無極神), and substantializes the Supreme Ultimate (太極) through Taeeul Cheonsan Wongun (太乙天上元君). The Later Heaven is the future perspective on the Heavenly Realm as seen from the vantage point of the Nine Heavens, into which the Divine Spirits have been introduced. The perspective on the Heavenly Realm in the Later Heaven is as follows.

First, the concept of the Heavenly Realm in Daesoon Thought appears in two forms. The Heaven as Sangje is newly added. In Daesoon Thought, the Divine exists as two forms — the Sangje as Divine, and the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth (天地神明) — so Heaven also exists in two forms: the Heaven of the Supreme Ultimate (太極) that is contrasted with Earth, and the Heaven of the Supreme Ultimate above that integrates Heaven and Earth. The Sangje presides over both the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate.

Second, compared with Donghak Thought, which merely declared that Heaven and Earth are yin and yang, Daesoon Thought presents a more concrete formulation of the Law of Heaven (理法天) than Donghak Thought. In sum, the features of the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm appear in a more concrete form than Donghak Thought: the replacement of the old Heaven with the new Heaven, the emphasis on the Supreme Ultimate and principles, the distinction between the grace of Heaven and the principles of Earth, and the relationship of Union of Virtue (合德) of yin and yang between Heaven and Earth.

The correlative thinking that appears in the Donghak Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm is more limited compared with Daesoon Thought. The fact that the Heaven-Humanity relationship and the Heaven-Earth relationship are more prominent in the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm shows that the liminality dimension is intensified in the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm compared with Donghak Thought. Furthermore, in the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Heavenly Realm, Sangsaeng (相生, Mutual Life) — which does not appear in Donghak Thought — is emphasized, and the role of Heaven is redefined, expanding the revitalization in Daesoon Thought.

The perspective on the Heavenly Realm revitalized in Daesoon Thought is substantialized through the Mugeuk Deity and Taeeul Cheonsan Wongun; the position of the Seven Stars Incantation (七星呪) changes; and as the names of Divine Spirits are invoked in the Twenty-four Masters Incantation and the Twenty-eight Constellations Incantation, the perspective on the Heavenly Realm is re-established. This is realized through the works on the Underworld (冥府公事) within the Works of Heaven and Earth. The astronomical chart (天象分野列次之圖) is rearranged.

In Daesoon Thought, the Later Heaven that has undergone Gaebyeok means the fusion of all the principles that have appeared in the time-space of all eras and all regions — East and West, past and present. Therefore, the connection between the Eastern and Western Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity as found in Donghak Thought's marvelous transformation (造化) develops in Daesoon Thought into fusion through the Works of the Three Realms.

The non-acting transformation (無為而化) in the Donghak Thought relationship between Heaven and Earth — constituted by "inner Divine Spirit and outer Gi-transformation (內有神靈 外有氣化)" — appears in Daesoon Thought as the Four Modes of growth, culmination, harvest, and storage (生長斂藏). The harmony of the Ten Heavenly Stems and Twelve Earthly Branches, the four virtues of origination, flourishing, advantage, and steadfastness (元亨利貞), and the twelve cycles of vitality — the result of the Twenty-eight Constellations and Twenty-four Solar Terms arranged through the Works of Heaven and Earth — is established in Daesoon Thought. This appears in the order of Union of Virtue of Yin and Yang (陰陽合德), Establishment of the Three Powers (三才確立), and Complete Endowment of the Five Agents (五行具備) as stated in the Statement of Purpose of Daesoon Thought's Mugeuk Order (無極道).

However, the existing Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity had fixed, unequal, and incompatible relationships among Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, and primarily pursued the salvation of humanity, liberation from suffering, or immortality for humans, rather than the realization of the World Spirit through humanity. The existing Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity still carry the unresolved questions that arose when Western civilization spread to the East in the past. What distinguishes Daesoon's Three Realms perspective from the existing Views of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity is the variability, constancy, and compatibility of the Three Realms. Daesoon's Three Realms perspective possesses variability, constancy, and compatibility through the Sangje.

The perspective of viewing modern problems as problems of the traditional Three Realms has not been undertaken even in Daoism. The reason Daesoon Thought continues to shine even today — more than one hundred years later — is that even now, more than one hundred years on, there are still few examples that have diagnosed modern civilization from a traditional Eastern perspective as thoroughly as Daesoon Thought. Research is needed that differentiates the perspective of viewing the various problems of modernity through the lens of the aging and imbalance of the Three Realms.

Section 2. Comparison of Indigenous Modernity in the View of Earth

1. Gi-transformation (氣化) and Cosmic Regulation (調理)

In Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought — which define the View of Heaven, View of Earth, and View of Humanity from the standpoint of a transcendent Heaven — the earth is not the earth belonging to the conventional Heaven and Earth, but rather the concept of Heaven and Earth contrasted with the transcendent Heaven — that is, Gi-transformation (氣化). However, in the case of Daesoon Thought, which introduced the concept of Divine Spirits into Donghak Thought, Gi-transformation has added to it the Cosmic Regulation (調理) — the role as mediator of earth (土) — by the transcendent Heaven that descended in human form. The concept of Cosmic Regulation in Daesoon Thought can also be compared with the View of Earth in Donghak Thought by examining the concept of Cosmic Regulation that appears in Daesoon Thought, in accordance with the principle of liminality that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Cosmic Regulation is a concept that clearly highlights the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Earthly Realm — in which harmonization is achieved through the Divine Spirit Realm — in contrast with Donghak Thought.

"Heaven's Use, Earth's Use, and Humanity's Use (天用地用人用之) regulate the fundamental principles (調理綱紀) and govern Heaven and Earth (統制乾坤). This is called the means of marvelous transformation (造化手段)." Jeon'gyeong, "Jisaeng" 43.⁵⁹

[59. Jeon'gyeong, "Jisaeng" 43: "Heaven's Use, Earth's Use, and Humanity's Use regulate the fundamental principles and govern Heaven and Earth. This is called the means of marvelous transformation." (Yang Mu-mok, "Yin-Yang Union of Virtue as the Truth of Salvation and Democracy," Daesoon Sasang Nonchong 2 (1997), pp.175–176.)]

The above passage shows that Cosmic Regulation — corresponding to Gi-transformation — becomes as essential a principle for explaining the operations of the cosmos as Gi-transformation itself. The "principles" (理) in Cosmic Regulation (調理) are expressed as the principles of things (理致) or the Law of Principle (理法). In Daesoon Thought, the earth appears as the central being of principles.

"In the twenty-third day of the twelfth month of the Jeongmi year, the Sangje sought out Sin Gyeong-su at his home. The Sangje spoke about Emperor Yao's (堯) Astronomical Calendar: Reverently Bestowing upon the People the Seasonal Times According to the Astronomical Images of the Sun, Moon, and Stars (曆像日月星辰敬授人時), saying: 'Without the sun and moon, Heaven and Earth are empty shells; without knowing humanity (知人), the sun and moon are vain reflections; because Emperor Tang Yao (唐堯) discovered the laws of the sun and moon and taught them to the people, the grace of Heaven and the principles of Earth were first given to humanity.' At this time, the Sangje taught 'The Sun and Moon Without Partiality Govern the Myriad Things; Mountains and Rivers with the Way Receive the Hundred Practices' (日月無私治萬物 江山有道受百行) and composed the Five Incantations (五呪), naming them the vital essences (津液) of Heaven and Earth."⁶⁰

[60. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-30.]

In the above passage, the "principles of Earth" shows the aspect of the earth that places emphasis on principles and laws according to the principle of "Heaven is round and Earth is square" (天圓地方). The principle (理) traditionally appears in connection with the Supreme Ultimate (太極). Before the emergence of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, principle (理) was the central concept in the theory of Principle and Vital Force (理氣論), so Donghak Thought emphasized vital force (氣) over principle by using the concept of "Gi-transformation" (氣化). In response, Daesoon Thought emphasizes the principle prior to principle — that is, the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate (無極太極) — emphasizing the practicality that applies to the everyday use of things. It is said that Jeongeup, where Daesoon Thought originated, had a tradition of the substantive theory of Principle and Vital Force of Iljae Yi Hang (一齋 李恒).⁶¹

[61. The city of Jeongeup, where Daesoon Thought arose, is said to have had the tradition of the substantive theory of Principle and Vital Force of Iljae Yi Hang. Kim Ik-du, Choe Yeong-seong, Lee Seon-a, and Kim Beom-su, New Perspectives on the Thought, Learning, and Theory of Iljae Yi Hang (Seoul: Munyewon, 2014).]

"Although principle (理) is lofty, it emerges from the outer form of the Supreme Ultimate and the Infinite Ultimate and does not depart from the midst of everyday things." Jeon'gyeong, "Jisaeng" 43.⁶²

[62. Jeon'gyeong, "Jisaeng" 43: "Isugoh chuleomugeuk taekgukjipyo bulrihoilyongsamuljigan" (理雖高 出於太極无極之表 不離乎日用事物之間): "Although principle is lofty, it emerges from the outer form of the Supreme Ultimate and the Infinite Ultimate and does not depart from the midst of everyday things."]

In the above passage, the expression "principle, though lofty, emerged from the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate" shows that principle (理) belongs to the Nine Heavens of Daesoon Thought, which presides over the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate. And thus principle exists in the everyday things of the world — that is, in all the myriad phenomena. In the theory of Principle and Vital Force, while principle (理) was a concept oriented toward attributes that excluded substantiality, the principle (理) that appears in the above passage is a concept of principle (理) in which substantiality is emphasized.

The Supreme Ultimate is the source of the cosmos; therefore, it does not exist only at the primordial source but is immanent in all things — like the principle (理) in the Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經). Zhu Xi's expression "each thing possesses the Supreme Ultimate, and the Supreme Ultimate constitutes the whole" (各具太極 統體太極) is connected to the Avatamsaka Sutra's concept of "infinite multiplicities in infinite multiplicities" (重重無盡).⁶³ This means that the Supreme Ultimate exists jointly in the macrocosm and microcosm, just as the Avatamsaka Sutra says there are countless buddhas within a grain of dust. The only difference between the Supreme Ultimate and the Buddhist principle (理) is that the Supreme Ultimate explicitly expresses that within the Supreme Ultimate are yin and yang. The difference between the principle (理) of the theory of Principle and Vital Force and the principle (理) of the Avatamsaka Sutra is that the principle (理) of the theory of Principle and Vital Force manifests even the specific attributes of origination, flourishing, advantage, and steadfastness (元亨利貞), going beyond the principle (理) of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

[63. Zhu Xi's expression "each thing possesses the Supreme Ultimate, and the Supreme Ultimate constitutes the whole" (各具太極, 統體太極) is connected to the Avatamsaka Sutra's concept of "infinite multiplicities in infinite multiplicities" (重重無盡). (Kim Jong-uk, "Ecosystems and the Dharmadhatu as Complex Systems," Cheolhak Sasang 41 (2011), pp.7–36.)]

The original characteristics of the category of principle (理) are said to be inclusiveness, diversity, and dynamism. Examining the concept of principle (理) before Neo-Confucianism (性理學), in the Shuowen Jiezi (說文解字) the veins of things are connected to jade (玉) because jade has the densest veins — thus jade and principle are linked. The first appearance of principle (理) is in the Book of Odes (詩經), the Zuozhuan (左傳), and the Guoyu (國語), where it is used as "the principle of patterns" (紋理, wenli); this concept of principle used as the veins or patterns of things then appears as "the principle of governance" (治理, zhili). Thereafter, in the Book of Changes, it becomes "the principle of all under Heaven" (天下之理) and "the principle of human nature and destiny" (性命之理); in Mencius it becomes the principle of morality (義理); in Xunzi it becomes the principle of ritual propriety (禮理); and it then transforms in Daoism into the principle of natural spontaneity (天然之理). Subsequently, the concept of principle (理) in Dong Zhongshu and the concept of principle (理) in the Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (黃帝內經) appear. Dong Zhongshu in "The Way of Cyclical Return" (循環之道) in the Chunqiu Fanlu (春秋繁露) refers to "the yet-unreached principle of Heaven and Earth" (天地之未達 理), and the Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine calls the process of growth, transformation, maturation, harvest, and storage the "principle of nourishing life" (養生之理).⁶⁴

[64. Zhang Liwen et al., The Philosophy of Principle (Li), trans. An Yu-gyeong (Seoul: Yemunseowon, 2004), pp.30–36, 46, 49, 106.]

The reason that the original characteristics of the category of principle (理) were inclusiveness, diversity, and dynamism is that they originated from the concept of "earth" (土) in yin-yang and the Five Agents. Daesoon Thought's concept of principle (理) was able to revitalize this concept of principle (理) as the concept of "earth" (土), and thereby introduce the concept of principle (理) in comparison with Donghak Thought — which was biased toward the concept of "Gi-transformation" (氣化) — and accordingly, by further introducing the concept of Divine Spirits (神明) that accompanies this, could present a more concrete indigenous modernity.

"Yuan Heng Li Zhen (元亨利貞): the Great Canon and Great Law — the Way rectifies Heaven and Earth; Number (數) determines the thousand laws; Principle (理) determines the Mind-Dharma (心法)." Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 2-33.⁶⁵

[65. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 2-33: "Wonhyongijeong daekyeong daebeopdojeong cheonjisujeon cheonbeop ijeongsimbeop" (元亨利貞大經大法道正天地數定千法而理定心法): "The Way rectifies Heaven and Earth; Number determines the thousand laws; Principle determines the Mind-Dharma." (Choe Chi-bong, "A Study on the Supreme Ultimate in Daesoon Thought," Daesoon Sasang Nonchong 23 (2014), p.403.)]

In the above passage — which appears in the "Gakdomun" (各道文), which defines the awakening of the Way — principle (理) appears between Yuan Heng Li Zhen (元亨利貞, the four virtues) and the concept of mind (心) signifying earth (土), expressing that what determines the mind's becoming earth is the concept of principle (理) — thereby showing that the relationship between principle (理) and vital force (氣) is the relationship between earth (土) and wood-fire-metal-water (木火金水). Daesoon Thought is indirectly emphasizing that the starting point of the theory of Principle and Vital Force is yin-yang and the Five Agents, and that it derives from Shao Kangjie.

"'In the Donghak songs (東學歌辭), three powers are made clear: in speech there is the eloquence of Su Qin and Zhang Yi (蘇秦 張儀); in knowledge there is the learning of Kangjie (康節 [Shao Kangjie]); in writing there is the literary style of Li Bai and Du Fu (李太白 杜子美). Think carefully about this,' he said."⁶⁶

[66. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyobeop" 2-42.]

That the theory of Principle and Vital Force originated in yin-yang and the Five Agents was long forgotten by Neo-Confucianism. The defeat of Neo-Confucianism by the West is also found in the fact that Neo-Confucianism had discarded yin-yang and the Five Agents itself. Yin-yang and the Five Agents was the starting point of the theory of Principle and Vital Force, but Neo-Confucian scholars accepted the theory of Principle and Vital Force while regarding yin-yang and the Five Agents as superstition. After Matteo Ricci, the superstitionizing of yin-yang and the Five Agents was accelerated. The re-examination of the Shao Kangjie theory — as in Seo Myeong-eung and others who grounded yin-yang and the Five Agents in the theory of Principle and Vital Force — was inevitable at the time.

When Haewon Sangsaeng (解冤相生) is realized through the human Cosmic Regulation (調理), the relationship between the divine and humans in the East and West can be integrated. Once it becomes certain that Divine Spirits exist as yin-yang and the Five Agents, Western earth-water-fire-wind also becomes one of the circular cycles of primordial energy. In the West, the concept of Divine Spirits has been demoted to the concept of angels, but angels too are restored to the status of Divine Spirits. Today's Western "thanatology" (death studies) also recognizes the existence of ancestral spirit-deities (先靈神). Although it began with the hospice movement aimed at well-dying, modern Western thanatology has demonstrated — through tens of thousands of near-death experience cases — that in the West as well as in the East, in the afterlife one encounters ancestral spirit-deities one has never met in life.⁶⁷

[67. Eben Alexander and Ptolemy Tompkins, Proof of Heaven: A Neurosurgeon's Journey into the Afterlife, trans. Ko Mi-ra and Lee Jin (Paju: Gimm-Young Publishers, 2013), pp.124–130, 190. Today's Western thanatology recognizes the existence of ancestral spirit-deities. Though it began with the hospice movement aimed at well-dying, modern Western thanatology has demonstrated through tens of thousands of near-death experience cases that in the West as well, people in the afterlife encounter ancestral spirit-deities they have never met in life.]

The ancestral spirit-deities of the West are also restored. Even in the West, a distinction is made between spirit-deities related to humans and spirit-deities of Heaven and Earth related to nature. If angels come to be equated with Divine Spirits, then in the West too, humans become beings that merge with angels. Given the characteristic natures of East and West — the West having had a closer affinity with underworld deities — when yin and yang achieve Union of Virtue (合德), the West too will coexist with ancestral spirits. Daesoon Thought explains both the theory of Principle and Vital Force and the theory of the soul by saying that "after four generations, an ancestor becomes a divine spirit and a celestial immortal (靈 and 仙)." If the concept of angels in the West were to transform into the concept of Divine Spirits, the nature of the Absolute would also transform. Michel Serres regards the concept of angels — like the Daesoon Thought concept of Divine Spirits — not as a simple concept but as the decisive occasion that shapes the Western epistemological framework.⁶⁸ In the East, the ultimate being was expressed as the Law of Principle (理法) — as in the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate — but Daesoon Thought also accepts the Western religious tradition in which Jesus personified this as the Father, and by concretizing the Infinite Ultimate and the Supreme Ultimate under names such as Mugeuk Deity (無極神), the relationship between divine and human in East and West is re-established. The re-established relationship between divine and human in East and West can also explain natural change as follows.

[68. Michel Serres, Hermès, trans. Lee Gyu-hyeon (Seoul: Minumsa, 2009), pp.299–303. Michel Serres regards the concept of angels — like the Daesoon Thought concept of Divine Spirits — not as a simple concept but as the decisive occasion that shapes the Western epistemological framework.]

"The day after the Doju (都主) returned from Haeinsa Temple, he gathered several followers and said: 'If you think that the Haein (海印), which the Sangje referred to as Inpae, is a physical object, that is a mistaken idea. The Haein is not far away — it is in the palm of one's own hand. Because the source of all the principles of the myriad phenomena of the cosmos lies in the ocean, it is called Haein; there is also the saying "the island sage of the sea" (海島眞人). Look at the ocean. It is all electricity. Water flows downward, but possesses the nature of rising. All the myriad phenomena of the cosmos absorb water energy and grow. The heavens have thirty-six layers (三十六天), presided over by the Sangje who governs electricity and thereby rules and nourishes all things in Heaven and Earth — he is the Sangje Thundering Sound Universal Transformation Heavenly Sovereign (雷聲普化天尊上帝). The electricity of the heavens was in the ocean water, and through the electricity of the ocean water, all things are enveloped.'"⁶⁹

[69. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 2-55.]

In Donghak Thought, the concept of "Gi-transformation" (氣化) appears in the part about "inner Divine Spirit and outer Gi-transformation" (內有神靈 外有氣化). In the case of "inner Divine Spirit and outer Gi-transformation," the Divine Spirit and Gi-transformation are another concept in Donghak that connects East and West. Suun expressed the form of the Heavenly Lord — who is personal yet simultaneously impersonal, transcendent yet simultaneously fully immanent — as "there is within us a Divine Spirit and without a Gi-transformation" (內有神靈 外有氣化).⁷⁰ Looking at the "Discourse on Learning" (論學文), we can see that Choe Je-u went one step further than the ordinary Eastern Learning and Western Instruments theory (東道西器論) and evaluated Western learning and morality highly.

[70. Baek Min-jeong, "A Comparison of the Thought of Jeong Yak-yong and Choe Je-u through the Concepts of Sangje (上帝) and Mind (心)," Minjok Munhwa 61 (2022), p.149.]

"Westerners have perfected the Way and established virtue, and in their marvelous transformations there is nothing they cannot accomplish. When they attack with weapons, none can stand before them in battle. If China falls, how can there not be the crisis of the lips and teeth for us? The cause lies nowhere else. They call their Way the Western Way (西道), and their learning the Heavenly Lord Learning (天主學), and their teaching the Holy Teaching (聖敎) — is this not knowing Heaven's timing and receiving the Heavenly mandate?"⁷¹

[71. Dongyeong Daejeon (東經大典), "Nonhakman" (論學文).]

However, Suun criticizes the practice of Western teaching. In the phrase "Western teaching lacks the Divine Spirit of Gi-transformation, and its learning lacks the teaching of the Heavenly Lord," the latter part — "its learning lacks the teaching of the Heavenly Lord" — is said to mean "its learning lacks the teaching of the Heavenly Lord's descended speech" (學無天主降話之敎), referring to the failure to internally receive the teaching of descended speech (降話).⁷² The fact that Suun criticized Westerners for not knowing how to serve the Heavenly Lord and ultimately only praying for themselves was because he believed they did not know the Divine Spirit of Gi-transformation that mediates and connects self and other.

[72. Son Byeong-uk, "Comparison of the Practice Systems of Donghak and Buddhist Nenbutsu-Zen," Donghak Hakbo 23 (2011), p.107.]

Daesoon Thought, compared with Donghak Thought, reveals as a difference the emphasis on the feminine mind rather than the masculine vital force.

"In the songs of Choe Su-un: 'If the Way and vital force long endure, evil will not enter' (道氣長存邪不入). But the Sangje said: 'If the true mind is steadfastly maintained, blessings will come first' (眞心堅守福先來)."⁷³

[73. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyobeop" 2-3.]

Unlike the masculine "supreme vital force" (至氣) emphasized in Donghak Thought, the emphasis on the feminine mind in Daesoon Thought is because the resolution of grievances according to principles (理) is emphasized. The "resolution through principles" — "understanding" (理解) — is, together with "reconciliation" (和解), continually emphasized in Daesoon Thought. The Daesoon Jinrihoe murals represent the resolution of grievances through Sangsaeng, the "Five Immortals Playing Baduk" (五仙圍棋), as "understanding" (理解). Today's renewed attention to Donghak Thought relates to the aspect of indigenous originality in which Donghak Thought is connected to Korea's indigenous modernity, but also to the fact that Donghak Thought is a thought that carries critique of material modern civilization and an alternative future vision. Donghak Thought regards material modern civilization as the legacy of Western Learning (西學) — Catholicism — and criticizes Western Learning for outwardly claiming equality but in the practice process having an aspect of betraying Heaven through each pursuing their own self-interest (各自爲心).⁷⁴

[74. Kim Yong-ok, Donggyeong Daejeon 2 (Seoul: Tongnamu, 2021), p.135.]

The current state of Donghak Thought is limited in terms of Donghak Thought itself, but it still exerts great influence today through the expansion of Donghak-related thoughts that arose after Donghak. Most Donghak-related thoughts proposed Gaebyeok as an alternative. In particular, Donghak aimed at a short-term, external, and social Gaebyeok. By contrast, Daesoon Thought aimed at a long-term, religious Gaebyeok through the Divine Spirits.

In East Asia at that bleak time — when the entire nation had fallen to colonial status and the identity maintained for five thousand years faced extinction — the Korean new religions, in rare fashion, presented a rosy future vision and received a great response from the people of the time. In fact, that vision, depending on interpretation, has been proven accurate even to the present day, and the religious influence of those new religions from that era continues today.

To the Donghak participants who had been frustrated by the failure of their aspirations to become kings, lords, generals, and ministers, Jeungsan presented the true Donghak (참동학, Chamsinthak) of resolution of grievances and Gaebyeok as the cause of and remedy for the failure of Donghak.

"One day the Sangje took Gyeong-seok and departed from Nong-am, heading toward Jeongeup. Stopping at a tavern in Wonpyeong along the way, he called a passerby, bought drinks and offered them, and said: 'This road is the sailing route of Southern Joseon. It will depart only when the load is heavy enough.' Then he pressed on down the road, and thirty ri further, said: 'A great advance (大陣) travels thirty ri a day.' He then lodged at the house of Bak Gong-u in the ancestral hall of the Choe clan at Song-wol-ri, Gobu. He said to Gong-u and Gyeong-seok: 'Now that the person I needed to meet has been met, the spiritual communion (通精神) flows. My work is something not even parents or siblings can know.' Also: 'I descended to the Heavenly Revelation Tower (天啓塔) of Daebeopguk (大法國) in the West and made a Grand Tour of the world, and bearing the great authority of the Three Realms (三界), I intend to perform Gaebyeok of the Three Realms and open the realm of the immortals, and rescue the living beings of the world who have fallen into death and annihilation. The reason I am staying in this land during my circuit through your Eastern land is precisely to first help the nameless and weak people buried in catastrophe and to resolve the grievances accumulated over ten thousand ages. Those who follow me will obtain eternal blessings and fortune, will not age and will not die, and will enjoy the bliss of the eternal realm of the immortals — this is the true Donghak (眞 東學). The Gung-eul Song (弓乙歌) says: "The mountains and rivers of Joseon are famous mountains; men who have penetrated the Way will arise again." This also speaks of my work. Among Donghak believers it is transmitted that the great teacher (大先生) will be reborn; this means that the substitute teacher (代先生) will arise again — and I am that substitute teacher.'"

In the above passage, Jeungsan says that helping Korea — the nameless and weak people — and resolving the grievances of ten thousand ages accumulated throughout the world to present a heaven on earth was the original intent of Donghak; Donghak merely failed to fulfill that original intent; but in the future, Donghak's original intent will be realized through the true Donghak. In fact, after Jeungsan, Korea fell under Japanese rule, but after Japanese rule, Korea — just as Jeungsan had envisioned — rose from the lowest-ranking nation in the world at that time to become, among nations that experienced colonialism, a politically, economically, and culturally advanced nation, known as the Miracle on the Han River. Daesoon Thought, in response to the uncertain future brought about by Donghak Thought's "Gi-transformation" (氣化), made the life of peace of mind and peace of spirit possible by emphasizing "earthly virtue" (地德).

2. Laboring Without Achievement (勞而無功) and Completion of Heaven and Earth (天地成功)

The terms that clearly highlight the difference in the View of Earth between Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought are "Laboring Without Achievement" (勞而無功) and "Completion of Heaven and Earth" (天地成功). "Laboring Without Achievement" — meaning "labored but did not succeed" — is the term used to describe the work of the Heavenly Lord in Donghak Thought, where the Heaven-beyond-Heaven (天外天) appeared only as a Divine Spirit; and Completion of Heaven and Earth is the term used by the Nine Heavens regarding Heaven and Earth after the descent in human form.

In traditional yin-yang and the Five Agents, the term contrasted with Completion of Heaven and Earth is the "Transformation and Nourishment of Heaven and Earth" (天地化育).⁷⁵ In the ideal Three Powers concept of "Heaven is round and Earth is square" (天圓地方) and "the Way of Heaven, the virtue of Earth" (天道地德), Heaven and Earth seek to accomplish Completion of Heaven and Earth by transforming and nurturing humanity — like parents raising a child for the success of the family. "Laboring Without Achievement" carries the meaning that there had been no cases of success. Among all of Eastern thought, with its many terms for Heaven and Earth such as "Heaven is round and Earth is square," the only place where the seed of the concept of Completion of Heaven and Earth appears is in Donghak Thought. In Donghak Thought, Completion of Heaven and Earth appears in the expression of the Heavenly Lord's "Laboring Without Achievement" (勞而無功). The "Laboring Without Achievement" of Donghak Thought becomes the gateway to understanding the Completion of Heaven and Earth of Daesoon Thought. Completion of Heaven and Earth is nothing other than the heaven on earth (地上天國) in which earth and Heaven achieve Union of Virtue (陰陽合德) — it is the success of the Heavenly Lord.

[75. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-66.]

In order to understand "Laboring Without Achievement," it is necessary to understand the existing Eastern concept of "spirits" (鬼神, guishen), since "Laboring Without Achievement" appears in Donghak Thought in the scene of awakening to Heaven and Earth as the Heavenly Lord — that is, as spirits (鬼神). In Donghak Thought, spirits mean the Heaven-beyond-Heaven, but understanding why the Heaven-beyond-Heaven is expressed with the term "spirits" requires an understanding of the traditional concept of spirits.

Zhu Xi says: "Matters relating to spirits are inherently secondary. Those spirits that have no form and no shadow are difficult to understand; there is no need to force oneself to understand them. One should first apply oneself to work on the pressing essentials of everyday life."⁷⁶ The discourse on the theory of spirits is not the Elementary Learning (小學) level discourse in which one practices "affairs" (事) with the body, but the Great Learning (大學) level discourse in which one investigates "principles" (理) with the mind. Although Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism is broadly divided into Zhu Xi's school and Wang Yangming's school, and the two may be viewed as opposed, in truth the two are not different in terms of their ontology, even if they differ in terms of their method of cultivation. Speaking ontologically, "the substance (體) of principle (理)" is nothingness (無) and emptiness (虛).⁷⁷

[76. Zhuzi Yulei (朱子語類), vol. 3 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju), p.33: "Matters relating to spirits are inherently secondary. Those spirits that have no form and no shadow are difficult to understand; there is no need to force oneself to understand them. One should first apply oneself to work on the pressing essentials of everyday life."] [77. Choe Jin-deok, "The Theory of Principle-Vital Force and the Theory of Spirits in Zhu Xi's Learning," Yangmyeonghak 23 (Korean Yangmyeong Studies Association, 2009), pp.381–382.]

Ultimately, the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Earthly Realm appears through the importance of "earth" (土) — which signifies the center of yin-yang and the Five Agents — within yin-yang and the Five Agents.⁷⁸ "Laboring Without Achievement" and "Completion of Heaven and Earth" are two different theories expressing the role of the Nine Heavens as earth (土). The time before the descent in human form is expressed as "Laboring Without Achievement," and the time after the descent in human form is expressed as "Completion of Heaven and Earth."

[78. Jeon'gyeong, "Haengrok" 2-16.]

Accordingly, the Donghak View of Earth is also understood in the form of emphasizing the life philosophy of the earth. As Donghak is re-examined as a life philosophy, the Donghak emphasis on the earth is also re-examined. Today's Korean organic farming is also said to have originated from Donghak Thought's earth-centered philosophy. However, in Donghak Thought proper, the importance of the earth equal to that of Heaven is not particularly emphasized. Here, Donghak Thought is discussed only up to early Donghak, as referenced in the Daesoon Thought Jeon'gyeong, and so only early Donghak will be considered. What is mainly referred to as Donghak in the Jeon'gyeong is Donghak songs and Suun's songs.

Completion of Heaven and Earth is a concept appearing in Daesoon Thought — which emphasizes the Divine Spirits unlike Donghak Thought — that the concept of Heaven and Earth each taking on roles and accomplishing things together. In the traditional East Asian View of Earth, the earth also formally appears as equal to Heaven, as in the term "Heaven and Earth" (天地). Most representatively, "Heaven is round and Earth is square" (天圓地方) does not refer to the mistaken geocentric claim that Heaven is round, proven by the heliocentric theory, but is an abbreviation of "the Way of Heaven is said to be round, the Way of Earth is said to be square" (天道之謂圓 地道之謂方), referring to the one-dimensional nature of time (宙, "cosmic time") and the two-dimensional nature of space (宇, "cosmic space"). The Heaven of the Book of Changes is called "Qian" (乾, 건); this character "dry Qian" (마를 건) indicates the dry nature of time that acts as the "乙" (movement/activity) process.

Daesoon Thought substantializes the traditional View of Earth through the Works of Heaven and Earth that transforms suppression of yin and exaltation of yang (抑陰尊陽) into correct yin and correct yang (正陰正陽). Accordingly, the earth is also rearranged along with the astronomical arrangements. Daesoon Thought begins from the three divine mountains (三神山)⁷⁹ and the parent mountains Hoiemunsan and Moaksan are put in order; the energy spots (穴) of the Mountain King and the Ocean King are aligned.⁸⁰ The heaven on earth — the result of the Union of Virtue of Heaven and Earth in yin and yang — is the representative term of the Daesoon Thought perspective on the Earthly Realm, in which the Three Realms operate correlationally.

[79. Jeon'gyeong, "Haengrok" 1-2.] [80. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 3-6.]

After the Donghak human-earth relationship of Bullyeongiryeon (不然其然) is gestated, what is nurtured is largely due to the revitalization of the earthly realm works in Daesoon Thought, which newly designated the three divine mountains and the parent mountains. In Daesoon Thought, the chaos of the Three Realms manifests in the human-earth relationship as the disruption of the earth's energy (地氣不通) — world wars and human arrogance from material civilization. The disharmony of the earth's energy (地氣), identified in Daesoon Thought as the cause of world conflicts, is unified through the works of unifying the earth's energy. After the opening of the exchange of Eastern and Western Divine Spirits by Matteo Ricci, modern civilization was pioneered through the exchange of underground civilization-deities with the heavenly realm and their beneficence to the human world. However, modern civilization ultimately led to the crisis of the annihilation of humanity through human arrogance and the bias of material civilization.⁸¹ Accordingly, through the works of the earthly realm, Daesoon Thought seeks to establish the human-earth relationship of earthly immortals through a civilization of Dao-arts (道術文明) as opposed to material civilization.

[81. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-9.]

Choe Su-un regarded Japan as the enemy that invaded Korea during the Imjin War (壬辰倭亂), and therefore as a target of vengeance to be destroyed. Choe Su-un took pride in the fact that his seventh-generation ancestor Jillip (震立) had rendered great service and died in battle during the Imjin War and the Byeongja Invasion (丙子胡亂), and was posthumously conferred the official post of Minister of War and the posthumous title of Jeonmugong. In his "Song of Peace of Mind" (安心歌), through expressions such as "those dog-like Japanese enemies" and "they are also enemies," he positioned Japan in an adversarial relationship.⁸² By contrast, Jeungsan considered that during the Imjin War, Japan had been unable to enter Seoul, that many innocent lives had been killed, and that Japan had actually formed a grievance against Joseon by teaching them rice-planting methods — and therefore performed the works of entrusting Joseon to Japan in order to resolve this grievance.⁸³ Jeungsan also said not to oppose Japan but to comply,⁸⁴ and prophesied that in the future Japan would be defeated and would leave without even receiving wages.⁸⁵ Many existing studies view the fact that Jeungsan temporarily entrusted Joseon to Japan to protect the Korean people from Western forces as showing that Jeungsan temporarily utilized Japan's assertion of leadership in East Asia.⁸⁶

[82. Park Gwang-su, The Thought and Religious Culture of Korean New Religions (Seoul: Jibmundang, 2012), pp.199–201. Choe Su-un took pride in his seventh-generation ancestor Jillip's wartime service and posthumous honors, and in his "Song of Peace of Mind" positioned Japan in an adversarial relationship through expressions such as "those dog-like Japanese enemies" and "they are also enemies."] [83. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 74.] [84. Jeon'gyeong, "Yesi" 57.] [85. Jeon'gyeong, "Gongsa" 2-4.] [86. Kang Don-gu, Korean Modern Religion and Nationalism (Seoul: Jibmundang, 1992); Park Jae-hyeon, "The Characteristics of Daesoon Thought in Korea's Modern Period: Focusing on Trans-nationalism and Modern and Post-modern Values," Daesoon Sasang Nonchong 24 (2014).]

[Note: The text continues with Section 3 on the Comparison of Indigenous Modernity in the View of Humanity, which begins at the end of this file with the subsection on Innaecheon (人乃天) and Harmonious Transformation of Spirits and Humans (神人調化). This section is included below as it appears at the close of the source text.]

Section 3. Comparison of Indigenous Modernity in the View of Humanity

1. Innaecheon (人乃天) and Harmonious Transformation of Spirits and Humans (神人調化)

"Innaecheon" (人乃天, "Man is Heaven") — the idea that humans are Heaven itself — is not an expression made by Suun in early Donghak, but is evaluated as a concept that excludes the transcendent aspect and maximizes the immanent aspect of the Heaven-Humanity and Earth-Humanity relationships in Donghak Thought as expressed in "inner Divine Spirit and outer Gi-transformation," in order to conform to Western modernity.⁸⁷ Innaecheon is used in the Cheondogyo (天道敎) order — which interpreted Suun's thought after Donghak — as the phrase representing the modernity of Donghak Thought. The reason Innaecheon was designated as the term representing the modernity of Donghak Thought was the egalitarian ideology contained within it. The claim that even butchers, women, and children could become Heaven — "Innaecheon" — was, in the pre-modern society where only the "Son of Heaven" (天子) could become Heaven, a very advanced thought for asserting equality in the human world, excluding the divine spirit world.

[87. Hwang Jong-won, "A Critical Study on the Innaecheon Doctrine and the Theory of Mind and Nature of Cheondogyo in the Early Twentieth Century," Daedong Cheolhak 44 (2008), pp.92–93.]

Despite the great resonance of the "Innaecheon" thought, Daesoon Thought viewed the reason for Donghak Thought's failure as "Haewon" (resolution of grievances). In Daesoon Thought, egalitarianism does not come suddenly like a revolution, but gradually through Haewon and the Sangsaeng (相生, mutual flourishing) that follows from it.

Furthermore, Daesoon Thought does not express that "humans are Heaven." In Daesoon Thought, Heaven means not only the Heaven divided into the conventional Heaven and Earth, but also Heaven as the Nine Heavens that presides over all the myriad phenomena. In Daesoon Thought, which emphasizes the grace of Heaven, humans cannot become beings equal to Heaven. However, in Daesoon Thought — in which the descent in human form has been accomplished — the status of humans is elevated in a way different from Donghak Thought. Even the thought of early Donghak — Suun's thought — was "Your mind is my mind" (吾心卽汝心), not "Innaecheon." Daesoon Thought rather points to human forgetfulness of the grace of Heaven and Earth, and to modernity, as the causes of the problem, and advocates for respecting Heaven and Earth.

"The fact that affairs flourish lies in Heaven and Earth, and not necessarily in humans. However, without humans, Heaven and Earth are useless; therefore, Heaven and Earth give birth to humans and use them. Given this, if humans do not participate when Heaven and Earth wish to use humans, how can this be called a human life?"⁸⁸

[88. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyobeop" 3-47: "Sajidangwang jaeo cheonji, pilbujaein, yeonmuinmu cheonji, go cheonjisaengin yongin, i insaeng bulchame cheonji, yonginjisiha gawol insaengho" (事之當旺在於天地 必不在人 然無人無天地 故天地生人 用人 以人生 不參於天地用人之時 何可曰人生乎): "The fact that affairs come to fruition lies fundamentally in Heaven and Earth, not necessarily in humans. However, without humans, Heaven and Earth are useless; therefore Heaven and Earth give birth to humans and use them. Given this, if humans do not participate when Heaven and Earth wish to use humans, how can this be called a human life?" (Office of Education, "Cheonji Saengin Yongin," Daesoon Hoebo 13, 1989.)]

In the above passage, it is made clear that the beginning and end of affairs lies in Heaven and Earth, not in humans. Ultimately, Daesoon Thought shows that in order to achieve the egalitarian world that Innaecheon aims for, gratitude to Heaven and Earth and the prior resolution of human grievances therefor must come first — and that true modernity is not transformation (變革) but resolution of grievances (解冤).⁸⁹

[89. Lee Gyeong-won, "The Modernity and Transformative Thought of Daesoon Jinri," Donghak Hakbo 9(2): 43 (2005).]

Therefore, in response to Innaecheon as the basis for transformation, what Daesoon Thought presents is the harmony of spirits and humans — Harmonious Transformation of Spirits and Humans (神人調化). Here, "harmonious transformation" (調化, joh-wa) is a compound word formed by combining the 調 (joh, "harmonize") from 調和 (harmony) and the 化 (hwa, "transform") from 造化 (marvelous transformation) — a word that appears only in Daesoon Thought and does not exist in conventional dictionaries. Harmonious Transformation (調化) can be said to be a combination that gathers only the merits of 調和 (harmony) and 造化 (marvelous transformation).⁹⁰

[90. Lee Gyeong-won, Original Treatise on Daesoon Studies (Seoul: Munsacheol, 2013).]

The relationship between Divine Spirits and humans that appears in Daesoon Thought — but not in Donghak Thought — is the core of the difference in the indigenous modernity of the View of Humanity between Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought. Donghak Thought viewed the cause of the problem of modernity as a human problem — each pursuing their own self-interest (各自爲心). But in Daesoon Thought, the cause of the problem of modernity is the foolishness of humans who do not know the grace of the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth. The perspective of Daesoon Thought reflects the perspective of the Nine Heavens. In Daesoon Thought, thinking of humans as beings equal to Heaven — as in Innaecheon — is the arrogance and foolishness of humanity. If humans do not know the grace of Heaven and Earth or act contrary to Heaven and Earth, no work can succeed.⁹¹ Accordingly, Daesoon Thought regards Emperor Yao (堯) — who made humanity aware of the grace of Heaven and Earth — as a very exemplary model of humanity.

[91. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-66.]

"In the twenty-third day of the twelfth month of the Jeongmi year, the Sangje sought out Sin Gyeong-su at his home. The Sangje spoke about Emperor Yao's Astronomical Calendar: Reverently Bestowing upon the People the Seasonal Times According to the Astronomical Images of the Sun, Moon, and Stars (曆像日月星辰敬授人時), saying: 'Without the sun and moon, Heaven and Earth are empty shells; without knowing humanity, the sun and moon are vain reflections; because Emperor Tang Yao discovered the laws of the sun and moon and taught them to the people, the grace of Heaven and the principles of Earth were first given to humanity.' At this time, the Sangje taught 'The Sun and Moon Without Partiality Govern the Myriad Things; Mountains and Rivers with the Way Receive the Hundred Practices' and composed the Five Incantations (五呪), naming them the vital essences of Heaven and Earth. The five incantations are as follows:

New Heaven and Earth, household by household, long enduring years; Sun and Moon, Sun and Moon, know all things. Serving the Heavenly Lord, the marvelous transformation is settled; throughout eternity never forgetting, know all things. Blessings and fortune — Sincerity, Reverence, Faith; Longevity — Sincerity, Reverence, Faith; The Supreme Vital Force now arrives, may the Great Descent be granted. Bright virtue, Guanyin, eight yin eight yang; The Supreme Vital Force now arrives, may the Great Descent be granted. The Great Divine Authority that Exorcises Demons of the Three Realms, may it accord with the Heavenly Sovereign Guan Sheng Dijun."⁹²

[92. Jeon'gyeong, "Gyoun" 1-30.]